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An antibody (Ab), also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig),[1] is a large, Y-shaped protein used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects such as pathogenic bacteria and viruses. The antibody recognizes a unique molecule of the pathogen, called an antigen.[2][3] Each tip of the "Y" of an antibody contains a paratope (analogous to a lock) that is specific for one particular epitope (analogous to a key) on an antigen, allowing these two structures to bind together with precision. Using this binding mechanism, an antibody can tag a microbe or an infected cell for attack by other parts of the immune system, or can neutralize it directly (for example, by blocking a part of a virus that is essential for its invasion).

Each antibody binds to a specific antigen; an interaction similar to a lock and key.
To allow the immune system to recognize millions of different antigens, the antigen-binding sites at both tips of the antibody come in an equally wide variety. In contrast, the remainder of the antibody is relatively constant. It only occurs in a few variants, which define the antibody's class or isotype: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. The constant region at the trunk of the antibody includes sites involved in interactions with other components of the immune system. The class hence determines the function triggered by an antibody after binding to an antigen, in addition to some structural features. Antibodies from different classes also differ in where they are released in the body and at what stage of an immune response.

Together with B and T cells, antibodies comprise the most important part of the adaptive immune system. They occur in two forms: one that is attached to a B cell, and the other, a soluble form, that is unattached and found in extracellular fluids such as blood plasma. Initially, all antibodies are of the first form, attached to the surface of a B cell – these are then referred to as B-cell receptors (BCR). After an antigen binds to a BCR, the B cell activates to proliferate and differentiate into either plasma cells, which secrete soluble antibodies with the same paratope, or memory B cells, which survive in the body to enable long-lasting immunity to the antigen.[4] Soluble antibodies are released into the blood and tissue fluids, as well as many secretions. Because these fluids were traditionally known as humors, antibody-mediated immunity is sometimes known as, or considered a part of, humoral immunity.[5] The soluble Y-shaped units can occur individually as monomers, or in complexes of two to five units.

Antibodies are glycoproteins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily. The terms antibody and immunoglobulin are often used interchangeably,[1] though the term 'antibody' is sometimes reserved for the secreted, soluble form, i.e. excluding B-cell receptors.[

MKUltra
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"MKULTRA" redirects here. For other uses, see MKULTRA (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Edgewood Arsenal human experiments.
Project MKUltra (or MK-Ultra)[a] was an illegal human experimentation program designed and undertaken by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and intended to develop procedures and identify drugs that could be used during interrogations to weaken people and force confessions through brainwashing and psychological torture.[1][2][3][4] It began in 1953 and was halted in 1973. MKUltra used numerous methods to manipulate its subjects' mental states and brain functions, such as the covert administration of high doses of psychoactive drugs (especially L*D) and other chemicals without the subjects' consent, electroshocks,[5] hypnosis,[6][7] sensory deprivation, isolation, verbal and sexual abuse, and other forms of torture.[8][9]

Declassified MKUltra documents
MKUltra was preceded by Project ARTICHOKE.[10][11] It was organized through the CIA's Office of Scientific Intelligence and coordinated with the United States Army Biological Warfare Laboratories.[12] The program engaged in illegal activities,[13][14][15] including the use of U.S. and Canadian citizens as unwitting test subjects.[13]: 74 [16][17][18] MKUltra's scope was broad, with activities carried out under the guise of research at more than 80 institutions aside from the military,[19] including colleges and universities, hospitals, prisons, and pharmaceutical companies.[20] The CIA operated using front organizations, although some top officials at these institutions were aware of the CIA's involvement.[13]

MKUltra was revealed to the public in 1975 by the Church Committee of the United States Congress and Gerald Ford's United States President's Commission on CIA activities within the United States (the Rockefeller Commission). Investigative efforts were hampered by CIA Director Richard Helms's order that all MKUltra files be destroyed in 1973; the Church Committee and Rockefeller Commission investigations relied on the sworn testimony of direct participants and on the small number of documents that survived Helms's order.[21] In 1977, a Freedom of Information Act request uncovered a cache of 20,000 documents relating to MKUltra, which led to Senate hearings.[13][22] Some surviving information about MKUltra was declassified in 2001. Wikipedia

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